Dispersion of carbon nanotubes by nucleic acids

ABSTRACT

Nucleic acid molecules in a stabilized solution such as single stranded DNA and RNA were able to disperse high concentration of bundled carbon nanotubes into aqueous solution.

This application claims the benefit of U.S. provisional application60/428,087, filed Nov. 21, 2002 and U.S. provisional application60/432804, filed Dec. 12, 2002.

FIELD OF INVENTION

The invention relates the use of biopolymers to disperse carbonnanotubes for use in nanodevices. More specifically nucleic acidmolecules have been found to disperse bundled carbon nanotubes.

BACKGROUND

Carbon nanotubes (CNT) have been the subject of intense research sincetheir discovery in 1991. CNT's possess unique properties such as smallsize and electrical conductivity, which makes them suitable in a widerange of applications, including use as structural materials inmolecular electronics, nanoelectronic components, and field emissiondisplays. Carbon nanotubes may be either multi-walled (MWNTs) orsingle-walled (SWNTs), and have diameters in the nanometer range.

Depending on their atomic structure CNT's may have either metallic orsemiconductor properties, and these properties, in combination withtheir small dimensions makes them particularly attractive for use infabrication of nano-devices. A major obstacle to such efforts has beenthe diversity of tube diameters, chiral angles, and aggregation statesin nanotube samples obtained from the various preparation methods.Aggregation is particularly problematic because the highly polarizable,smooth-sided fullerene tubes readily form parallel bundles or ropes witha large van der Waals binding energy. This bundling perturbs theelectronic structure of the tubes, and it confounds all attempts toseparate the tubes by size or type or to use them as individualmacromolecular species.

There have been many reports on producing suspensions enriched inindividual fullerene tubes (J. Liu et al., Science 280, 1253 (1998); M.J. O'Connell et al., Chem. Phys. Lett. 342, 265 (2001); S. Bandow etal., J. Phys. Chem. B 101, 8839 (1997); J. Chen et al., Science 282, 95(1998); G. S. Duesberg, J. Muster, V. Krstic, M. Burghard, S. Roth,Appl. Phys. A 67, 117 (1998); A. B. Dalton et al., J. Phys. Chem. B 104,10012 (2000); A. B. Dalton et al., Synth. Metals 121, 1217 (2001); R.Bandyopadhyaya, E. Nativ-Roth, O. Regev, R. Yerushalmi-Rozen, Nano Lett.2, 25 (2002)), available samples have still been dominated by smallnanotube bundles. M. O'Connell et al (Science 297, 593 (2002)) hasdescribed a method based on vigorous treatment with a sonicator followedby centrifugation, primarily yielding individual fullerene nanotubes inaqueous micellar suspensions. Also described are processes (M. O'Connellet al., Chem. Phys. Lett., 342, 265, 2001; WO 02/076888) for thesolubilization of carbon nanotubes in water by association with selectedpolymers, although not all polymers tried were successful.

Once the nanotubes are in a dispersed form suitable for furthermanipulation, a desirable next step is self-assembly of the nanotubes ona solid substrate. Associating oligonucleotides to carbon nanotubeswould allow one to use bimolecular techniques for the positioning of thenanotubes on a substrate. K. A. Williams et al (AIP Conf. Proc. 663,444, 2002) has covalently coupled peptide nucleic acid oligomers tocarbon nanotubes and then hybridized this construct to DNA. However, DNAwas not directly attached to the nanotubes, nor was dispersion ofnanotube bundles observed.

The problem to be solved, therefore, is to provide a method for thefacile and inexpensive solubilization and dispersion of bundled carbonnanotubes for use in the fabrication of nano-devices. Applicants havesolved the stated problem through the discovery that stabilizedsolutions of nucleic acid molecules have the ability to disperse andsolubilize carbon nanotubes, resulting in the formation ofnanotube-nucleic acid complexes. Although complexes of nucleic acids andcarbon nanotubes are known, the present complexes are new, in that theassociation between the nanotube and nucleic acid is non-covalent andnot through the interaction of specific functionalized groups.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

The invention provides a method for dispersing a population of carbonnanotubes comprising:

a) providing a stabilized solution of nucleic acid molecules;

b) contacting a population of carbon nanotubes with an effective amountof the stabilized nucleic acid solution of step (a) for a timesufficient to disperse the carbon nanotubes; and

c) optionally recovering the dispersed carbon nanotubes.

In an alternate embodiment the invention provides a method ofimmobilizing a carbon nanotube comprising:

a) providing a stabilized solution of nucleic acid molecules, saidnucleic acid molecules functionalized with at least one first member ofa binding pair;

b) providing a solid substrate having at least one second member of abinding pair immobilized thereon;

c) contacting a population of carbon nanotubes with an effective amountof the stabilized nucleic acid solution of step (a) whereby thepopulation of carbon nanotubes is dispersed and whereby each carbonnanotube of the population becomes associated with at least onefunctionalized nucleic acid molecule of step (a); and

d) contacting the dispersed, nucleic acid associated carbon nanotubes ofstep (c) with the solid substrate of step (b) whereby the nucleic acidassociated carbon nanotubes are immobilized through the interaction ofthe first and second binding pairs.

Also provided by the invention is a carbon nanotube—nucleic acid complexcomprising an unfunctionalized carbon nanotube bound to a nucleic acidmolecule.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE FIGURES

FIG. 1 is a graph of optical density measurements to illustrate thecarbon nanotube dispersion efficiency by a variety of sequences.

FIG. 2 is a graph of optical density measurements illustrating thedispersion efficiency of a particular sequence as a function of durationof sonication and with addition of formamide.

FIG. 3 is a graph of optical density measurements comparing thedispersion efficiency of carbon nanotubes by ssDNA (FIG. 3A) versussurfactant (FIG. 3B).

FIG. 4 is a graph of optical density measurements to illustrate thecarbon nanotube dispersion efficiency by RNA.

FIG. 5 is an electronmicrograph illustrating immobilization of DNAdispersed carbon nanotubes through biotin-streptavidin interaction. InFIG. 5A, the ssDNA used for carbon nanotube dispersion is biotinylatedN90; where as in FIG. 5B, ssDNA used for carbon nanotube dispersion isunmodified N90.

FIG. 6 is an electronmicrograph taken via atomic force microscopy of anisolated carbon nanotube wrapped with DNA.

FIG. 7 is an electronmicrograph taken via atomic force microscopyshowing different modes of DNA wrapping on carbon nanotubes.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

The invention relates to a method for dispersing a population of bundledcarbon nanotubes by contacting the bundled nanotubes with a stabilizedsolution of nucleic acid molecules. It has been found that nucleic acidsare very effective in dispersing the nanotubes, forming nanotube-nucleicacid complexes based on non-covalent interactions between the nanotubeand the nucleic acid molecule.

The method is particularly useful since a major obstacle to themanipulation and use of carbon nanotubes (CNT's) as structural materialshas been their poor solubility and their tendency to aggregate inbundles or clusters.

In this disclosure the following terms and abbreviations may be used forthe interpretation of the claims and specification.

“cDNA” means complementary DNA

“PNA” means peptide nucleic acid

“SEM” means scanning electron microscopy

“ssDNA” means single stranded DNA

“tRNA” means transfer RNA

“CNT” means carbon nanotube

“MWNT” means multi-walled nanotube

“SWNT” means single walled nanotube

“TEM” means transmission electron microscopy

The term “carbon nanotube” refers to a hollow article composed primarilyof carbon atoms. The carbon nanotube can be doped with other elements,e.g., metals. The nanotubes typically have a narrow dimension (diameter)of about 1-200 nm and a long dimension (length), where the ratio of thelong dimension to the narrow dimension, i.e., the aspect ratio, is atleast 5. In general, the aspect ratio is between 10 and 2000.

As used herein a “nucleic acid molecule” is defined as a polymer of RNA,DNA, or peptide nucleic acid (PNA) that is single-or double-stranded,optionally containing synthetic, non-natural or altered nucleotidebases. A nucleic acid molecule in the form of a polymer of DNA may becomprised of one or more segments of cDNA, genomic DNA or synthetic DNA.

The letters “A”, “G”, “T”, “C” when referred to in the context ofnucleic acids will mean the purine bases adenine (C₅H₅N₅) and guanine(C₅H₅N₅O) and the pyrimidine bases thymine (C₅H₆N₂O₂) and cytosine(C₄H₅N₃O), respectively.

The term “peptide nucleic acids” refers to a material having stretchesof nucleic acid polymers linked together by peptide linkers.

As used herein the term “stabilized solution of nucleic acid molecules”refers to a solution of nucleic acid molecules that are solubilized andin a relaxed secondary conformation.

The term “nanotube-nucleic acid complex” means a composition comprisinga carbon nanotube loosely associated with at least one nucleic acidmolecule. Typically the association between the nucleic acid and thenanotube is by van der Waals bonds or some other non-covalent means.

The term “binding pair” refers to chemical or biopolymer based couplesthat bind specifically to each other. Common examples of binding pairsare immune-type binding pairs, such as antigen/antibody orhapten/anti-hapten systems. Suitable binding pairsglutathione-S-transferase/glutathione, 6×histidine Tag/Ni-NTA,streptavidin/biotin, S-protein/S-peptide, cutinase/phosphonateinhibitor, antigen/antibody, hapten/anti-hapten, folic acid/folatebinding protein, and protein A or G/immunoglobulins. Another example ofa binding pair is a negatively charged phosphate backbone of a nucleicacid molecule, with the second member being a positively chargedsurface.

The term “ligand” or “reactive ligand” will refer to one member of abinding pair which has been incorporated into the nucleic acid analyteand may include but is not limited to antibodies, lectins, receptors,binding proteins or chemical agents.

The term “agitation means” refers to a devices that facilitate thedispersion of nanotubes and nucleic acids. A typical agitation means issonication.

The term “denaturant” as used herein refers to substances effective inthe denaturation of DNA and other nucleic acid molecules.

The term “solid support” means a material suitable for theimmobilization of a nanotube-nucleic acid complex. Typically the solidsupport provides an attachment of a member of a binding pair throughwhich the complex is capture and immobilized.

The term “hybridization domain” refers to a specific portion of anucleic acid molecule that is designed to hybridize to a complementarystrand of another nucleic acid molecule. “Hybridizable” nucleic acidsmay be used to immobilize or direct placement of nanotube-nucleic acidcomplexes in the fabrication of nano-devices.

A nucleic acid molecule is “hybridizable” to another nucleic acidmolecule, such as a cDNA, genomic DNA, or RNA, when a single strandedform of the nucleic acid molecule can anneal to the other nucleic acidmolecule under the appropriate conditions of temperature and solutionionic strength. Hybridization and washing conditions are well known andexemplified in Sambrook, J., Fritsch, E. F. and Maniatis, T. MolecularCloning: A Laboratory Manual, Second Edition, Cold Spring HarborLaboratory Press, Cold Spring Harbor (1989), particularly Chapter 11 andTable 11.1 therein (entirely incorporated herein by reference). Theconditions of temperature and ionic strength determine the “stringency”of the hybridization. Stringency conditions can be adjusted to screenfor moderately similar fragments, such as homologous sequences fromdistantly related organisms, to highly similar fragments, such as genesthat duplicate functional enzymes from closely related organisms.Post-hybridization washes determine stringency conditions. One set ofpreferred conditions uses a series of washes starting with 6×SSC, 0.5%SDS at room temperature for 15 min, then repeated with 2×SSC, 0.5% SDSat 45° C. for 30 min, and then repeated twice with 0.2×SSC, 0.5% SDS at50° C. for 30 min. A more preferred set of stringent conditions useshigher temperatures in which the washes are identical to those aboveexcept for the temperature of the final two 30 min washes in 0.2×SSC,0.5% SDS was increased to 60° C. Another preferred set of highlystringent conditions uses two final washes in 0.1×SSC, 0.1°SDS at 65° C.Hybridization requires that the two nucleic acids contain complementarysequences, although depending on the stringency of the hybridization,mismatches between bases are possible. The appropriate stringency forhybridizing nucleic acids depends on the length of the nucleic acids andthe degree of complementation, variables well known in the art. Thegreater the degree of similarity or homology between two nucleotidesequences, the greater the value of Tm for hybrids of nucleic acidshaving those sequences. The relative stability (corresponding to higherTm) of nucleic acid hybridizations decreases in the following order:RNA:RNA, DNA:RNA, DNA:DNA. For hybrids of greater than 100 nucleotidesin length, equations for calculating Tm have been derived (see Sambrooket al., supra, 9.50-9.51). For hybridizations with shorter nucleicacids, i.e., oligonucleotides, the position of mismatches becomes moreimportant, and the length of the oligonucleotide determines itsspecificity (see Sambrook et al., supra, 11.7-11.8). In one embodimentthe length for a hybridizable nucleic acid is at least about 10nucleotides. Preferable a minimum length for a hybridizable nucleic acidis at least about 15 nucleotides; more preferably at least about 20nucleotides; and most preferably the length is at least 30 nucleotides.Furthermore, the skilled artisan will recognize that the temperature andwash solution salt concentration may be adjusted as necessary accordingto factors such as length of the probe.

Standard recombinant DNA and molecular biology techniques used here arewell known in the art and are described by Sambrook, J., Fritsch, E. F.and Maniatis, T., Molecular Cloning: A Laboratorv Manual, SecondEdition, Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press, Cold Spring Harbor, N.Y.(1989) (hereinafter “Maniatis”); and by Silhavy, T. J., Bennan, M. L.and Enquist, L. W., Experiments with Gene Fusions, Cold Spring HarborLaboratory Cold Press Spring Harbor, N.Y. (1984); and by Ausubel, F. M.et al., Current Protocols in Molecular Biology, published by GreenePublishing Assoc. and Wiley-Interscience (1987).

Dispersion of Carbon Nanotubes.

The invention provides a method for the dispersion of bundled carbonnanotubes by contacting the nanotubes with a stabilized solution ofnucleic acid molecules.

Carbon Nanotubes

Carbon nanotubes of the invention are generally about 0.5-2 nm indiameter where the ratio of the length dimension to the narrowdimension, i.e., the aspect ratio, is at least 5. In general, the aspectratio is between 10 and 2000. Carbon nanotubes are comprised primarilyof carbon atoms, however may be doped with other elements, e.g., metals.The carbon-based nanotubes of the invention can be either multi-wallednanotubes (MWNTs) or single-walled nanotubes (SWNTs). A MWNT, forexample, includes several concentric nanotubes each having a differentdiameter. Thus, the smallest diameter tube is encapsulated by a largerdiameter tube, which in turn, is encapsulated by another larger diameternanotube. A SWNT, on the other hand, includes only one nanotube.

Carbon nanotubes (CNT) may be produced by a variety of methods, and areadditionally commercially available. Methods of CNT synthesis includelaser vaporization of graphite (A. Thess et al. Science 273, 483(1996)), arc discharge (C. Journet et al., Nature 388, 756 (1997)) andHiPCo (high pressure carbon monoxide) process (P. Nikolaev et al. Chem.Phys. Lett. 313, 91-97 (1999)). Chemical vapor deposition (CVD) can alsobe used in producing carbon nanotubes (J. Kong et al. Chem. Phys. Lett.292, 567-574 (1998); J. Kong et al. Nature 395, 878-879 (1998); A.Cassell et al. J. Phys. Chem. 103, 6484-6492 (1999); H. Dai et al. J.Phys. Chem. 103,11246-11255 (1999)).

Additionally CNT's may be grown via catalytic processes both in solutionand on solid substrates (Yan Li, et al., Chem. Mater.; 2001; 13(3);1008-1014); (N. Franklin and H. Dai Adv. Mater. 12, 890 (2000); A.Cassell et al. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 121, 7975-7976 (1999)).

Nucleic Acid Molecules

Nucleic acid molecules of the invention may be of any type and from anysuitable source and include but are not limited to DNA, RNA and peptidenucleic acids. The nucleic acid molecules may be either single strandedor double stranded and may optionally be functionalized at any pointwith a variety of reactive groups, ligands or agents. The nucleic acidmolecules of the invention may be generated by synthetic means or may beisolated from nature by protocols well known in the art (Sambrooksupra).

It should be noted that functionalization of the nucleic acids are notnecessary for their association with CNT's for the purpose ofdispersion. Functionailzation may be of interest after the CNT's havebeen dispersed and it is desired to bind other moieties to the nucleicacid or immobilize the carbon nanotube-nucleic acid complex to a surfacethrough various functionalized elements of the nucleic acid. As usedherein nucleic acids that are used for dispersion, typically lackfunctional groups and are referred to herein as “unfunctionalized.”

Peptide nucleic acids (PNA) are particularly useful in the presentinvention as they possess the double functionality of both nucleic acidsand peptides. Methods for the synthesis and use of PNA's are well knownin the art, see for example Antsypovitch, S. I. Peptide nucleic acids:structure Russian Chemical Reviews (2002), 71(1), 71-83.

The nucleic acid molecules of the invention may have any composition ofbases and may even consists of stretches of the same base (poly A orpolyT for example) without impairing the ability of the nucleic acidmolecule to disperse the bundled nanotube. Preferably the nucleic acidmolecules will be less than about 2000 bases where less than 1000 basesis preferred and where from about 5 bases to about 1000 bases is mostpreferred. Generally the ability of nucleic acids to disperse carbonnanotubes appears to be independent of sequence or base composition,however there is some evidence to suggest that the less G-C and T-Abase-pairing interactions in a sequence, the higher the dispersionefficiency, and that RNA and varieties thereof is particularly effectivein dispersion and is thus preferred herein. Nucleic acid moleculessuitable for use in the present invention include but are not limited tothose having the general formula:

-   -   1. An wherein n=1-2000;    -   2. Tn wherein n=1-2000;    -   3. Cn wherein n=1-2000;    -   4. Gn wherein n=1-2000;    -   5. Rn wherein n=1-2000, and wherein R may be either A or G;    -   6. Yn wherein n=1-2000, and wherein Y may be either C or T;    -   7. Mn wherein n=1-2000, and wherein M may be either A or C;    -   8. Kn wherein n=1-2000, and wherein K may be either G or T;    -   9. Sn wherein n=1-2000, and wherein S may be either C or G;    -   10. Wn wherein n=1-2000, and wherein W may be either A or T;    -   11. Hn wherein n=1-2000, and wherein H may be either A or C or        T;    -   12. Bn wherein n=1-2000, and wherein B may be either C or G or        T;    -   13. Vn wherein n=1-2000, and wherein V may be either A or C or        G;    -   14. Dn wherein n=1-2000, and wherein D may be either A or G or        T; and    -   15. Nn wherein n=1-2000, and wherein N may be either A or C or T        or G;

In addition the combinations listed above the person of skill in the artwill recognize that any of these sequences may have one or moredeoxyribonucleotides replaced by ribonucleotides (i.e., RNA or RNA/DNAhybrid) or one or more sugar-phosphate linkages replaced by peptidebonds (i.e. PNA or PNA/RNA/DNA hybrid).

Ligand Incorporation

It is contemplated that ligands may be introduced into the nucleic acidmolecules in a variety positional orientations and numbers. For exampleligands can be incorporated into one or both strands of a duplex nucleicacid analyte. Positionally, ligands can be incorporated either at the 5′or 3′ ends of the analyte or incorporated on internal bases within thenucleic acid sequence, but incorporation internally is generallypreferred.

The method of incorporation of the ligand into the nucleic acidsequences may be accomplished either by chemical or enzymatic means, orby direct incorporation of ligand labeled bases into the targetsequence. In a preferred approach, ligand incorporated sequences areprepared using ligand labeled bases or primers during polymerase chainreaction. Ligand incorporation can be accomplished either through theincorporation of primers modified with ligand(s) or by using ligandlabeled dNTPs. Ligand labeled primers can be prepared using standardoligonucleotide cyanoethyl phosphoramidite chemistry by substitutingselected bases with ligand modified phosphoramidite bases during primersynthesis. Alternatively, if primers are prepared with modified basescontaining a linkable molecular spacer, the ligands can be chemicallylinked to the spacer after primer synthesis. Another method would makeuse of ligand labeled dNTPs or amino modified dNTPs which can beincorporated into a target nucleic acid sequence during theamplification procedure.

There are several advantages to synthesis of ligand incorporated nucleicacid sequences by PCR. For example, where labeled primers are used, itis possible to control both the positioning and number of ligands withinone or both strands of the target sequence by the appropriate placementof the ligand in the primers.

Of particular interest in the present invention is the incorporation ofbinding pairs into the nucleic acid molecule. Where a nucleic acid isassociated with a carbon nanotube, the use of specific binding pairsenables the placement of the nucleic acid portion at a specific point ofattachment and facilitates the rationale design of nano-devices andstructures. Members of specific binding pairs suitable for use inpracticing the invention can be of the immune or non-immune type. Immunespecific binding pairs are exemplified by antigen/antibody systems orhapten/anti-hapten systems. The antibody member, whether polyclonal,monoclonal or an immunoreactive fragment thereof, of the binding paircan be produced by customary methods familiar to those skilled in theart. The terms “immunoreactive antibody fragment” or “immunoreactivefragment”refer to fragments which contain the binding region of theantibody. Such fragments may be Fab-type fragments which are defined asfragments devoid of the Fc portion, e.g., Fab, Fab′ and F(ab′)₂fragments, or may be so-called “half-molecule” fragments obtained byreductive cleavage of the disulfide bonds connecting the heavy chaincomponents of the intact antibody. If the antigen member of the specificbinding pair is not immunogenic, e.g., a hapten, it can be covalentlycoupled to a carrier protein to render it immunogenic.

Non-immune binding pairs include systems wherein the two componentsshare a natural affinity for each other but are not antibodies.Exemplary non-immune binding pairs are biotin-avidin orbiotin-steptavidin, folic acid-folate binding protein, complementaryprobe nucleic acids, Proteins A, G, and immunoglobulins, etc. Alsoincluded are non-immune binding pairs which form a covalent bond witheach other: exemplary covalent binding pairs include sulfhydryl reactivegroups such as maleimides and haloacetyl derivatives and amine reactivegroups such as isothiocyanates, succinimidyl esters and sulfonylhalides, etc. M. N. Bobrow, et al., J. Immunol. Methods, 125, 279,(1989).

Binding pairs particularly suitable or use in the present inventioninclude but are not limited to immune-type binding pairs, such asantigen/antibody or hapten/anti-hapten systems as well asglutathione-S-transferase/glutathione, 6× histidine Tag/Ni-NTA,streptavidin/biotin, S-protein/S-peptide, cutinase/phosphonateinhibitor, antigen/antibody, hapten/anti-hapten, folic acid/folatebinding protein, and protein A or G/immunoglobulins. Binding pairs mayalso include charged moieties as for example, a negatively chargedphosphate backbone of a nucleic acid molecule, with the second memberbeing a positively charged surface.

Nucleic Acid Stabilization

Once the nucleic acid molecule has been prepared it may be stabilized ina suitable solution. It is preferred if the nucleic acid molecules arein a relaxed secondary conformation and only loosely associated witheach other to allow for the greatest contact by individual strands withthe carbon nanotubes. Stabilized solutions of nucleic acids are commonand well known in the art (see Sambrook supra) and typically includesalts and buffers such as sodium and potassium salts, and TRIS(Tris(2-aminoethyl)amine), HEPES(N-(2-hydroxyethyl)piperazine-N′-(2-ethanesulfonic acid), andMES(2-(N-Morpholino)ethanesulfonic acid. Preferred solvents forstabilized nucleic acid solutions are those that are water misciblewhere water is most preferred.

Once the nucleic acid molecules are stabilized in a suitable solutionthey may be contacted with a population of bundled carbon nanotubes. Itis preferred, although not necessary if the contacting is done in thepresence of an agitation means of some sort. Typically the agitationmeans employs sonication for example, however may also include, devicesthat produce high shear mixing of the nucleic acids and nanotubes (i.e.homogenization), or any combination thereof. Upon agitation the carbonnanotubes will become dispersed and will form nanotube-nucleic acidcomplexes comprising at least one nucleic acid molecule looselyassociated with the carbon nanotube by hydrogen bonding or somenon-covalent means.

The process of agitation and dispersion may be improved with theoptional addition of nucleic acid denaturing substances to the solution.Common denaturants include but are not limited to formamide, urea andguanidine. A non-limiting list of suitable denaturants may be found inSambrook supra.

Additionally temperature during the contacting process will have aneffect on the efficacy of the dispersion. Agitation at room temperatureor higher was seen to give longer dispersion times whereas agitation attemperatures below room temperature (23° C.) were seen to give morerapid dispersion times where temperatures of about 4° C. are preferred.

Recovery of Dispersed Nanotubes

Once the nanotube-nucleic acid molecule complexes are formed they mustbe separated from solution. Where the nucleic acid has beenfunctionalized by the addition of a binding pair for example separationcould be accomplished by means of immobilization thought the bindingpair as discussed below. However, where the nucleic acid has not beenfunctionalized an alternate means for separation must be found.Applicants have provided a novel separation method involving either gelelectrophoresis chromatography or a phase separation method that israpid and facile and permits the separation of nanotube-nucleic acidcomplexes into discreet fractions based on size or charge. These methodshave been applied to the separation and recovery of coated nanoparticles(as described in U.S. Ser. No. 10/622,889 incorporated herein byreference) and have been found useful here.

Gel electrophoresis is a commonly used method in biochemistry andmolecular biology to separate macromolecules such as proteins andnucleic acids. The gel serves as a sieving medium to separate themacromolecules on the basis of size. In the present invention, the gelcan be made from agarose or polyacrylamide. Methods for preparingsuitable gels are well known and exemplified in Sambrook, supra,particularly Chapter 6 (entirely incorporated herein by reference).Suitable agarose gels have an agarose concentration between 0.6 and 6%(weight per volume), while suitable polyacrylamide gels have anacrylamide concentration between 3.5 and 20% (weight per volume). It iswell known in the art that the concentration of the gel to be useddepends on the size of the molecules being separated. Specifically,higher gel concentrations provide better separation for smallermolecules, while lower gel concentrations are used to separate largermolecules. The gel concentration to be used for a given nanoparticlefractionation can be determined by routine experimentation. Thepreferred gel of the present invention is a 1% or lower agarose gel.

In order to determine the average particle size of the complexes adensifying agent may be added to an aqueous solution of the complexes.The purpose of densifying agent is to increase the specific gravity ofthe nanoparticle solution to facilitate loading of the solution into thegel. Suitable densifying agents are well known and include, but are notlimited to, glycerol, sucrose, and Ficoll (a nonionic, synthetic polymerof sucrose, approximate molecular weight of 400,000, available fromSigma, St. Louis, Mo.). The complex solution is then added to the wellsin the gel. The complexes migrate according to their apparent molecularweight and size of any particular complex may be determined by usingmolecular weight standards.

Alternatively the complexes may be separated by two phase separationmethods. In this method nanotube-nucleic acid complexes in solution arefractionated by adding a substantially water-miscible organic solvent inthe presence of an electrolyte. The amount of the substantiallywater-miscible organic solvent added depends on the average particlesize desired. The appropriate amount can be determined by routineexperimentation. Typically, the substantially water-miscible organicsolvent is added to give a concentration of about 5% to 10% by volume toprecipitate out the largest particles. The complexes are collected bycentrifugation or filtration. Centrifugation is typically done using acentrifuge, such as a Sorvall® RT7 PLUS centrifuge available from KendroLaboratory Products (Newtown, Conn.), for about 1 min at about 4,000rpm. For filtration, a porous membrane with a pore size small enough tocollect the complex size of interest can be used. Optionally, sequentialadditions of the substantially water-miscible organic solvent are madeto the complex solution to increase the solvent content of the solutionand therefore, precipitate out complexes of smaller sizes.

Immobilization/Association of Nanotube-Nucleic Acid Complexes

Once formed the dispersed nanotube-nucleic acid complexes containingligands or binding pairs may be either immobilized on a solid substrateor rationally associated with other complexes in a process ofnano-device fabrication.

For example, where the nucleic acid molecule has been functionalizedwith a first member of a binding pair, it may be immobilized on a solidsupport containing a second member of the binding pair. Solid supportssuitable for such purposes are common and well known in the art andinclude but are not limited to, silicon wafers, synthetic polymersupports, such as polystyrene, polypropylene, polyglycidylmethacrylate,substituted polystyrene (e.g., aminated or carboxylated polystyrene;polyacrylamides; polyamides; polyvinylchlorides, etc.), glass, agarose,nitrocellulose, nylon, nickel grids or disks, silicon wafers, carbonsupports, aminosilane-treated silica, polylysine coated glass, mica, andsemiconductors such as Si, Ge, and GaAs. Method for incorporatingbinding pair members onto the surface of solid supports is also andadvanced art (see for example, Immobilized Enzymes, Inchiro Chibata,Halsted Press, New York (1978) and Cuatrecasas, J. Bio. Chem., 245: 3059(1970)).

Preferred binding pairs for immobilization of the present complexes arebiotin/streptavidin or biotin/avidin.

Alternatively it will be possible to immobilize the complexes of theinvention by direct interaction between nucleic acid molecules. Forexample, nucleic acid molecules in the dispersion sample may be chosenor designed to incorporate a specific hybridization domain that willhybridize with a specific complementary sequence. Nucleic acids havingthe complement sequence to the hybridization domain may be placed on thesurface of the support and the complex captured by hybridization.Immobilization of nucleic acids to a solid support is common and wellknown in the art and may be accomplished for example using ultravioletirradiation, baking, capillary transfer or vacuum transfer. Examples ofnucleic acid immobilization on nitrocellulose and other suitablesupports are given in Kalachikov, S. M., et al., Bioorg. Khim., 18, 52,(1992) and Nierzwicki-Bauer, et al., Biotechiques, 9, 472, (1990).

It will be appreciated by the person of skill in the art that the abovementioned interactions that enable the immobilization of the complexesof the invention may be equally employed to associate individualcomplexes with other complexes in a specific fashion. For example, abiotin containing complex may associate with a streptavidin containingcomplex or the hybridization domain of one nucleic acid molecule may bedesigned to bind to a similar domain on another complex.

In this fashion complexes may be rationally associated or immobilized tofacilitate device fabrication.

Metallization of Associated or Immobilized Complexes

Where it is desired to use the complexes of the invention, eitherimmobilized or associated in a particular conformation, as electricalconductors, the complexes can be metallized according to methods wellknown in the art. So for example it is well known in the art to sputteror evaporatively coat nanoscale structures with metals such as gold orplatinum, respectively, in order to stabilize and image the structures(Schnur, J. M. et al. (1987) Thin Solid Films 152, 181-206; Markowitz,M. et al. (1992) Thin Solid Films 224, 242-7), rhapidosomes (Pazirandeh,M. et al. (1992) Biomimetics 1, 41), DNA (Braun, E. et al. (1998) Nature391, 775-8) and microtubules (Kirsch, R. et al. (1997) Thin Solid Films305, 248-253).

Metallized nanotube-nucleic acid complexes of the invention will beuseful as nanowires or molecular interconnects in the fabrication ofnano-devices. It will be expected for example that these metallizedstructures could be arrayed in a crossed arrangement, where the distancebetween adjacent complex can be controlled by the potential differencebetween them, then the array could be used as a non-volatile memorydevice similar to that proposed by Leiber and collaborators (Rueckes T.et al. (2000). Science 289, 94-97) for carbon nanotubes. Semiconductingcomplexes could find use in 3-terminal gated devices which can be useddirectly as switches, amplifiers or logic gates. By linking themetalized complexes with organic semiconductors, it may be possible todevelop 2-terminal switching devices, showing, for example, negativedifferential resistance (e.g. Fan et al. (2002) JACS 124, 5550-5560).Other possible applications include point sources for emission infield-emission display devices and as conductive inclusions inconductive coatings.

EXAMPLES

The present invention is further defined in the following Examples. Itshould be understood that these Examples, while indicating preferredembodiments of the invention, are given by way of illustration only.From the above discussion and these Examples, one skilled in the art canascertain the essential characteristics of this invention, and withoutdeparting from the spirit and scope thereof, can make various changesand modifications of the invention to adapt it to various uses andconditions.

General Methods

Standard recombinant DNA and molecular biology techniques used in theExamples are well known in the art and are described by Sambrook, J.,Fritsch, E. F. and Maniatis, T. Molecular Cloning: A Laboratory Manual;Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press: Cold Spring Harbor, (1989)(Maniatis) and by T. J. Silhavy, M. L. Bennan, and L. W. Enquist,Experiments with Gene Fusions, Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, ColdSpring Harbor, N.Y. (1984) and by Ausubel, F. M. et al., CurrentProtocols in Molecular Biology, pub. by Greene Publishing Assoc. andWiley-Interscience (1987).

The meaning of abbreviations is as follows: “h” means hour(s), “min”means minute(s), “sec” means second(s), “d” means day(s), “mL”meansmilliliters, “L” means liters.

General Procedure for Dispersion of Carbon Nanotubes by Nucleic Acid

The single wall carbon nanotubes were made by the HiPCO process, eitherpurified or unpurified, and were purchased from CNI (Houston, Tex.). Thematerials were used as received without further modification.Single-stranded DNA (ssDNA) oligonucleotides were purchased fromIntegrated DNA Technologies, INC ( Coralville, Iowa). Yeast tRNA waspurchased from Sigma (St. Louis, Mo.). RNA homopolymers poly(A), poly(C)and poly(U) were purchased from Amersham Biosciences (Piscataway, N.J.).In a typical experiment, 10 mg of CNT were suspended in 10 mL of 1×SSCbuffer (0.15M NaCl, 0.015M sodium citrate), then sonicated for 2 minwith a TORBEO 130-Watt Ultrasonic Processor (Cole-Parmer InstrumentCompany, Vernon Hills, Ill.). Nucleic acids were dissolved in H₂O togive a final concentration of 10 mg/mL. 50 μL of the CNT suspension and5 μL of 10 mg/mL nucleic acid solution were added to 200 μL of H₂O togive a final volume of 255 μL. The mixture was sonicated for 3 min.,followed by 90 min of centrifugation at 16,000 g (Biofuge fresco, KendroLaoratory Products, Newtown, Conn.). The supernatant was then removedfor spectroscopic measurement. Absorption spectra from 400 nm to 900 nmwere recorded using Ultrospec 3300 UV-Vis spectrophotometer (AmershamBiosciences, Piscataway, N.J.). The 730 nm peak was taken as a measureof the yield of the dispersion process.

Example 1 Dispersion of Carbon Nanotubes by Single-stranded DNA:Sequence Dependence

In this experiment, purified single wall carbon nanotubes (HiPCO) wereused. Following the procedure described above, the dispersion efficiencyof a variety of sequences was examined. The sequences used include:

(N)90: where N stands for a random mix of G, A, T and C, the totallength is 90 bases;

(C/A)90: where C/A stands for a random mix of C and A, the total lengthis 90 bases;

(G/A)90: where G/A stands for a random mix of G and A, the total lengthis 90 bases;

(G/T)90: where G/T stands for a random mix of G and T, the total lengthis 90 bases;

(C/T)90, 60, 30: where C/T stands for a random mix of C and T, the totallength is 90, 60 and 30 bases, respectively;

C60: a homopolymer of C with 60 bases long;

T60: a homopolymer of T with 60 bases long.

Results from above sequences are shown in FIG. 1. In general, the lessG-C and T-A base-pairing interactions in a sequence, the higher thedispersion efficiency.

Example 2 Dispersion of Carbon Nanotubes by Single-stranded DNA: Effectof Sonication

In this experiment, purified single wall carbon nanotubes (HiPCO) wereused. Following the procedure described above, the dispersion efficiencyof a particular sequence (C/T)30 as a function of duration of sonicationexamined. As shown in FIG. 2, the longer the sonication, the more thedispersed CNT. This was found to be true for other sequences tested whensonication time is shorter than 15 minute. Beyond 15 min. duration,there is no further improvement in dispersion efficiency.

Example 3 Dispersion Carbon Nanotubes by Single-stranded DNA: Effect ofDenaturants

In this experiment, purified single wall carbon nanotubes (HiPCO) wereused. Following the procedure described above, the dispersion efficiencyof a particular sequence (C/T)30 in the absence and presence of nucleicacid denaturant formamide. As shown in FIG. 2, denaturant improves thefinal yield by a factor of 3 for this particular sequence. Otherexperiments showed that denaturants (such as formamide and urea) ingeneral improve dispersion efficiency by 2 to 3 fold.

Example 4 Dispersion of Carbon Nanotubes by Single-stranded DNA vs. SDS

In this experiment, purified single wall carbon nanotubes (HiPCO) wereused. Two dispersion tests were set up in this Example, followinggeneral procedures described above. In the first one, (C/T)30 DNA wasused. In the second sample, no DNA was used and 175 μl of H₂O plus 25 μlof 10% SDS (sodium dodecyl sulfate, purchased from Sigma, St. Louis,Mo.) aqueous solution were added in place of 200 μl of H₂O. As shown inFIG. 3, the yield from DNA-dispersed CNT was at least five times higherthat from SDS-dispersed CNT. Moreover, the degree of dispersion by DNAis higher that by SDS, as judged by the line-width of absorption peaks.

Example 5 Dispersion of Carbon Nanotubes by RNA

In this experiment, unpurified single wall carbon nanotubes (HiPCO) wereused. Dispersion experiments were performed as described above, exceptthat RNA (poly A, poly C, poly U and yeast tRNA) were used. The resultsshown in FIG. 4 indicate that RNA can also disperse CNT.

Example 6 Dispersion Carbon Nanotubes by Single-stranded DNA: Effect ofSonication Temperature

In this experiment, unpurified single wall carbon nanotubes (HiPCO) wereused. Following procedure described above, we have examined dispersionefficiency of a particular sequence (C/T)30 as a function of sonicationtemperature. In the first test, sonication was done as described inabove. In the second test, sample was prepared the same way as the firsttest, except that sample was held in an ice-water bath duringsonication. The yield of carbon nanotube dispersion from the second testwas determined to be four times higher than the first test. Thistemperature effect was found to be true for other sequences as well.

Example 7 Precipitation of DNA and RNA Dispersed Carbon Nanotubes

In this experiment, both purified and unpurified single wall carbonnanotubes (HiPCO) were tested. Dispersion experiments were performed asdescribed above. In a typical experiment, 200 μl of either DNA or RNAdispersed carbon nanotube solution at concentration of ˜0.1 mg/ml weremixed with equal volume of ethanol. Immediately after mixing,aggregation of carbon nanotube in solution was visible. After 1 mincentrifugation at 16,000 g (Biofuge fresco, Kendro Laoratory Products,Newtown, Conn.), the supernatant solution became clear and all thecarbon nanotubes went to the pellet. It was found that the pellet couldbe re-suspended into aqueous solution again.

Example 8 Immobilization of DNA Dispersed Carbon Nanotubes ThroughBiotin-Streptavidin Interaction

In this experiment, unpurified single wall carbon nanotubes (HiPCO) wereused. Dispersion experiments were performed as described in above. TwossDNAs were tested: 1) random 90-mer (N90 hereafter); 2) random 90-merwith biotinylated 5′ end (biotin-N90 hereafter). Streptavidin-coatedagarose beads were purchased from Sigma (St. Louis, Mo.), and were usedas received. Two samples were prepared. Sample 1: 100 μl of the agarosebeads were mixed with 100 μl of N90 dispersed carbon nanotube (˜0.1mg/ml). After 30 min of incubation, the beads were spun down and washedwith 0.5 mL of 1×SSC solution for 3 times. Sample 2: same as Sample 1,except biotin-N90 dispersed carbon nanotubes were used. After washing,one could notice that the pellet from Sample 2 was darker than Sample 1,indicating carbon nanotube binding to the beads. The two samples wereanalyzed by SEM (Scanning Electron Microscopy). The results shown inFIG. 5A and 5B confirmed that biotin-N90 but not N90 dispersed carbonnanotubes were trapped on the surface of the beads.

Example 9 Atomic Force Microscopy

The sample solution from Example 2 was deposited onto a piece of micapre-treated with 1 M MgSO4 solution to enhance DNA adsorption, andrinsed with water and dried prior to measurement. Tapping mode was usedto acquire the images under ambient conditions (Digital InstrumentsDimension 3100, Woodbury, N.Y.). FIG. 6 shows an isolated tube with 1 nmdiameter, wrapped by DNA with an average spacing of 11 nm. The width ofthe tube is 1.9 nm and the height is of the CNT/DNA=2.16 nm. FIG. 7shows different modes of DNA wrapping on different CNTs.

1. A method for dispersing a population of carbon nanotubes comprising:a) providing a stabilized solution of nucleic acid molecules; b)contacting a population of carbon nanotubes with an effective amount ofthe stabilized nucleic acid solution of step (a) for a time sufficientto disperse the carbon nanotubes; and c) optionally recovering thedispersed carbon nanotubes.
 2. A method according to claims 1 whereinthe nucleic acid solution is aqueous.
 3. A method according to claim 1wherein the contacting is done in the presence of an agitation means. 4.A method according to claim 1 wherein the contacting is done in thepresence of a denaturing agent.
 5. A method according to claim 1 whereinthe contacting is done at about 4° C.
 6. A method according to claim 3wherein the agitation means is selected from the group consisting ofsonication, high shear mixing, or any combination thereof.
 7. A methodaccording to claim 1 wherein the nucleic acid molecules are selectedfrom the group consisting of, single stranded DNA, double stranded DNA,RNA and PNA.
 8. A method according to claim 7 wherein the nucleic acidmolecules are either synthetic or substantially isolated from nature. 9.A method according to claim 7 wherein the nucleic acid molecule isselected from the group consisting of:
 1. An wherein n=1-2000;
 2. Tnwherein n=1-2000;
 3. Cn wherein n=1-2000;
 4. Gn wherein n=1-2000;
 5. Rnwherein n=1-2000, and wherein R may be either A or G;
 6. Yn whereinn=1-2000, and wherein Y may be either C or T;
 7. Mn wherein n=1-2000,and wherein M may be either A or C;
 8. Kn wherein n=1-2000, and whereinK may be either G or T;
 9. Sn wherein n=1-2000, and wherein S may beeither C or G;
 10. Wn wherein n=1-2000, and wherein W may be either A orT;
 11. Hn wherein n=1-2000, and wherein H may be either A or C or T; 12.Bn wherein n=1-2000, and wherein B may be either C or G or T;
 13. Vnwherein n=1-2000, and wherein V may be either A or C or G;
 14. Dnwherein n=1-2000, and wherein D may be either A or G or T; and
 15. Nnwherein n=1-2000, and wherein N may be either A or C or T or G;
 10. Amethod according to claim 1 wherein the nucleic acid molecules are fromabout 10 bases to about 1000 bases in length.
 11. A method according toclaim 1 wherein the nucleic acid molecules are functionalized with amember of a binding pair.
 12. A method according to claim 11 wherein themember of a binding pair is one of the binding pairs selected from thegroup consisting of glutathione-S-transferase/glutathione, 6×histidineTag/Ni-NTA, streptavidin/biotin, S-protein/S-peptide,cutinase/phosphonate inhibitor, antigen/antibody, hapten/anti-hapten,folic acid/folate binding protein, and protein A or G/immunoglobulins.13. A method according to claim 11 wherein the binding pair is one ofthe binding pairs selected from the group consisting ofbiotin/streptavidin and biotin/avidin.
 14. A method of immobilizing acarbon nanotube comprising: a) providing a stabilized solution ofnucleic acid molecules, said nucleic acid molecules functionalized withat least one first member of a binding pair; b) providing a solidsubstrate having at least one second member of a binding pairimmobilized thereon; c) contacting a population of carbon nanotubes withan effective amount of the stabilized nucleic acid solution of step (a)whereby the population of carbon nanotubes is dispersed and whereby eachcarbon nanotube of the population becomes associated with at least onefunctionalized nucleic acid molecule of step (a); and d) contacting thedispersed, nucleic acid associated carbon nanotubes of step (c) with thesolid substrate of step (b) whereby the nucleic acid associated carbonnanotubes are immobilized through the interaction of the first andsecond binding pairs.
 15. A method according to claim 14 wherein thesolid support is in a form selected from the group consisting of: afilm, a bead; a semiconducting metallic surface, a wafer substrate,glass, and mica.
 16. A method according to claim 14 wherein the memberof a binding pair is derived from one of the binding pairs selected fromthe group consisting of glutathione-S-transferase/glutathione,6×histidine Tag/Ni-NTA, streptavidin/ibiotin, S-protein/S-peptide,cutinase/phosphonate inhibitor, antigen/antibody, hapten/anti-hapten,folic acid/folate binding protein, and protein A or G/immunoglobulins.17. A method according to claim 14 wherein the first member of bindingpair is a negatively charged phosphate backbone of a nucleic acidmolecule, and the second member is a positively charged surface.
 18. Amethod according to claim 14 wherein the nucleic acid molecule isselected from the group consisting of single stranded DNA, doublestranded DNA, RNA and PNA.
 19. A method according to claim 14 whereinthe functionalized nucleic acid molecule optionally comprises ahybridization domain.
 20. A method according to claim 19 wherein thefunctionalized nucleic acid molecule binds additional nucleic acidmolecules by hybridization through the hybridization domain. 21-27.(canceled)